New Public Management

Introduction New Public Management (NPM) is a term that various governments have been using since the 1980s to modernize the public sector. The NPM reforms are meant to change the old system of traditional public administration and come up with a revamped system of public administration (Lynn, 1998).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on New Public Management specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More According to Larbi, Key elements of NPM â€Å"include various forms of decentralizing management within public services, increasing use of markets and competition in the provision of public services, and increasing emphasis on performance, outputs and customer orientation† (Larbi, 1999, pp. 1). These reforms were necessitated by economic, social and technological factors. The existence of economic and fiscal crises has increased the need in the financial system a high technology that would make delivery of public se rvices less costly. The Origin, theory and principles of NPM The origin of NPM. The New Public Management approach to public management was founded on a critique of bureaucracy as the organizing principle within public administration (Dunleavy, 1991). He claimed that bureaucracy was plagued by progressive inflexibility which was based on complex hierarchical rule based systems and top-down decision making which caused it to become increasingly distant from the general publics’ expectations. According to Kelly (1998), NPM focused on what was believed to be the critical aspects of private sector modes of organizing and managing public sector and public administration. While the State Owned Enterprises continued to incur losses due to poor management and inefficiency by its managers, the private sector mode of management was claimed would help these government institutions out of those problems hence enhancing service delivery to the people of the countries concerned. Government s were urged to incorporate the techniques of business administration and business values which included the values of competition, a preference for market mechanisms as a way of social choice and respect for the entrepreneurial spirit (Yamamoto, 2003). Following these recommendations the public sector reforms have started been initiated and as a result governments institutions have started moving forward in terms of profit making, and accountability (Mathiasen, 1996). In Japan for instance, scholars have tried to look at the various techniques that the government used in order to make her the most industrialized country in Asia because the new public management ideas were introduced in Japan few years back through the assistance of programs set out by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).Advertising Looking for research paper on government? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Principles of NPM.NPM as a term ca n be used to describe; organization and management design, how the new institutional economics can be applied to public management, and a pattern of policy choices. According to Hood (1995), there are several NPM principles that include: An emphasis on hands- on professional management skills for active, visible, discretionary control of organizations, explicit standards and measures of performance through clarification of goals targets, and indicators of success, A shift from the use of input controls and bureaucratic procedures to rules relying on output controls measured by quantitative performance indicators of success, A shift from unified management systems to disaggregation of units in the public sector, An introduction of greater competition in the public sector so as to lower costs and achievement of higher standards through term contracts, A stress on private sector style management practices such as the use of short term labor contracts, the development of corporate plans , performance agreements, and mission statements (Hood, 1991) and finally, Stresses on cost cutting, efficiency, parsimony in resource use (Yamamoto, 2003). The Theory of NPM. According to Ewan (1996), new public management is a fusion of contractual elements in the field of institutional economics such as the principles of measuring performance and introducing competition and of the management by objective in the field of business administration. Therefore to Ewan, new public management unites the institutional economics and managerialialism from business management thought which therefore means that new public management strategy should balance effort involving the use contractual arrangement as a tool of output controls and managerial freedom (Matland, 1995). Factors responsible for New Public Management Reforms The idea of New Public Management started in the developed countries like United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand. Therefore, the developing countries in Afric a and Asia were forced into adopting these reforms by pressure and influence from these countries. The new public management reforms are a result of the following factors; The first factor is related to Economic and fiscal crises of the state. Countries adopting the NPM are concerned about their balance of payments, cost of providing public services, and the size of public expenditure (Jennings, Ewalt, 1998). In the United Kingdom for instance, the fiscal crisis led to an IMF intervention with a demand for financial reforms while some blame was placed on leaders who were non reformist. When the Western governments were faced with fiscal crisis they initiated measures not only to cut but also control public spending. Just as was the case with the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand reorganized and modernized public bureaucracies hence prioritizing public sector management reforms.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on New Public Management specificall y for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The second factor is about change in political context. Poliit (2007) argues that Reagan’s election in 1978 did provide some fresh impetus for market oriented reforms in the public sector which was already under pressure to reform. The case was the same in Australia and New Zealand which both brought reforms oriented governments. He further says that the strategies to cut the size of the public sector were buttressed by an ideological campaign to reverse the growing reliance on the government. The Development of information technology is another factor enhancing the development of new public management reforms. The development and availability of information technology provided the necessary tools and structures to make workable managerial reforms in the public sector. Refined information became important in the management because executive agencies were put in place which enhanced accountability. Public a dministration and management context also played a significant role in reforming the new public management. The 1970s and early 1980s crisis were believed to have been as a result of failure of public administration institutions and hence improving their performance was largely believed to be critical to recovery and adjustment (Milward, 1996). For example, in Ghana there were 235 State Owned Enterprises (SOE) at the beginning of Economic Recovery Program most of which were making losses thus contributing nothing to the growth of the economy in terms of revenue generation. However when the government intervened, the SOE sector increased from 1.1 billion cedis in1982 to 735 billion in 1987 in 1986 (Yamamoto 2003). From the late 1980s public sector reforms became part and parcel of Structural Adjustment Loans (SALs) which provided institutional support. The other factor is international experiences. When communism collapsed in there was a wind for change in most of the Western world w hich also spread across many developing countries in crisis that they had to reform (Kaboolian, 1998). The factors that dove reforms in particular were the structural lending conditions which pointed toward market and private sector approaches to public sector management under the guise of new public management. There is also Good governance that leads to superb public sector management reforms and hence influences new public management reforms. In 1980s, there was a debate about good governance. Its requirements provided a new approach to public sector management reforms.Advertising Looking for research paper on government? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Responsiveness to customer needs, and accountability have been identified as aspects of good governance by donor agencies like the United Kingdom and USAID supporting reforms in developing countries. According to the World Bank, good governance calls for a non compromising judicial system and an administration that has efficiency of the highest profile. Guyverson (2007) elaborates the elements of good governance as; [Public sector management emphasizing the need for effective financial and human resource management through improved budgeting, accounting and reporting, and rooting for efficiency and particularly in public enterprises; Accountability in public services, including effective accounting, auditing and decentralization, and generally making public officials responsible for their actions and responsive to consumers; A predictable legal framework with rules known in advance; a reliable and independent judiciary and law enforcement mechanisms and; Availability of information and transparency in order to enhance policy analysis, promote public debate and reduce risks of corruption] (Guyverson, 2007, PP. 1). The practical applicability of New Public Management The principles of NPM are applicable in several situations. Firstly, they are applicable in Breaking up monolithic bureaucracies into agencies.This involves a split between a small strategic policy core and large operations arms of government with increased managerial autonomy. Agencies are then required to conduct their relations with each other and with the central departments on contractual basis. In principle these agencies have greater managerial flexibility in allocation of human resources in return for greater accountability for results. United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand provide some of the best examples of these agencies. The development of executive agencies has been accompanied by the delegation of authority to senior management in public agencies hence giving top management freedo m to manage with clear responsibility and accountability (Terry, 1998). Secondly, there is devolving budgets and financial control. This involves creating budget centers or spending units (Stamp, 1923). This entails giving managers increased control over budgets for which they are accountable. Singapore for example has already started a process of devolving financial management as a prelude to creating autonomous agencies. From 1996 ministries and departments were assigned operating budgets based on target output. Ghana on the other hand embarked on a public financial management that involved financial devolvement. Thirdly is the Organizational unbundling. This involves replacement of traditional, tall hierarchies with more responsive structures formed around specific processes such as paying of benefits as in the United Kingdom (Pollit, 994). Then there is down sizing. This entails trimming the public workforce so that efficiency and accountability can be enhanced. Downsizing is a s a result of concerns over the size of public sector employment which was not effective. Some countries like Ghana and Uganda in Africa, Thailand and Bangladesh have had to retrench surplus numbers of civil servants in the last ten years. According to Rhodes (1996), it’s worth noting that although downsizing took place in many countries, this did not lead to budget savings which could have been used to improve the salaries and incentives of those who remained. Limitations of the New Public Management The presumptions that involving public sector enhances performance may at times not be true and may be only partially truth. According to Osborne 2002, the quality in service provision may fall as an aspirational professional standard may increasingly be replaced by minimalist, economizing managerial standards. Emphasizing too much on cost reduction, NPM may encourage the pursuit of efficiency in flawed policies with short term gains undermining the capacity of the state to take long term perspective on important issues like education, environment, health and technology. Issues like these ones need to be considered in seeking to transfer New Public Management to developing countries (Bekke, Kickert Kooiman, 1995). In developing countries like Ghana it is feared among traditional bureaucrats that the potential destabilizing effects of NPM may get out of control, become unmanageable and do irreversible damage to the provision of public services. Critics of NPM also points out to increasing inequality as market type mechanisms produce ‘market niche seeking’ behavior by public service providers. Thus the cultural and organizational change in the social provision, expressed in the concepts of markets and individualism may create conditions for social exclusion (Mazamanian Sabatier, 1983. As a result such reforms may end up harming most of those in need of state provision and welfare safety nets; the poor and the vulnerable. Other people argue tha t NPM may promote self interest and corruption as policy makers and senior bureaucrats opt for privatization and contracting out because of increased opportunities for rent –seeking and other forms of misdemeanor (Hjern Porter, 1981). There has also been a fall in ethical standards in public life with increasing incidence of greed, favoritism or conflicting interests. In developing countries adoption of NPM may lead to more abuses and arbitrary use of discretion in contracting for example (Kate 2002). There have also been complaints about loss of public and traditional channels of local accountability as functions are fragmented among numerous agencies and many of them are privatized or contracted out to profit seeking commercial firm. According to Tom 2007 fragmentation makes accountability and monitoring more difficult There is also a risk of huge increases in transaction as governments and other purchasers struggle to monitor contracts across an increasing and varied numb er of provider organization. Therefore we can argue that good leadership is important in all organizations if they are to produce high quality goods and services. This feature of management cuts across cultural boundaries and is not just restricted to the developing countries in the third world in Africa and Asia (Peters Pierre, 1998). However it’s good to appreciate that this leadership and its outcome is not affected by the culture of a people and therefore it is expected to vary in certain aspects. The above criticism of NPM has received interest in the active role of the state in some aspects of development. As United Kingdom’s Secretary of State for International Development said, the main focus of development policy which is elimination of poverty could only be achieved through strong and effective states and that the era of complete enmity to the public sector and to state provision was coming to an end (Jan Eric 2000). Conclusion New Public Management aim was to enhance cost effective methods as well as accountability. While the adoption of these NPM measures seem to have been of great benefit to some instances, they have also been found to have real constrains in applying them especially in the third world countries. The NPM implementation have raised question even to the developed countries with mature public administration systems (Mead, 1996). From the factors driving change it’s apparent that the conditions for introducing NPM reforms in developing countries may be very different from those of developed nations NPM reforms in developing countries appear to be based on a common frame work with those in developed countries and therefore seem to follow a common master plan rather than a process or contingent approach (Agranoff McGuire. 1998). While the new public management approach may not be a panacea for the problems of public sectors management in developing countries, there should be a careful adaptation of some elements s ince the implementation needs to be sensitive to realize operations. Reference List Agranoff, R. McGuire M., 1998. â€Å"Multinetwork Management.† Journal of Public  Administration Research and Theory, Vol. 8, No. 1: 67-91. Bekke, H., W. Kickert Kooiman J.. 1995. â€Å"Public Management and Governance.† In  Kickertand F. A. van Vught, eds. Public Policy and Administrative Sciences in the Netherlands. London: Harvester-Wheatsheaf. Ewan, F., 1996. A New Public Management in Action. New York: Oxford University Press. Hjern, B. Porter, D., 1981. â€Å"Implementation Structures: A New Unit of Administrative  Analysis.† Organization Studies, Vol. 2, No. 3: 211-227. Hood, C., 1991. â€Å"A Public Management for All Seasons.† Public Administration. Vol. 69: 3-19. Guyverson, V., 2007.   The Impacts of Information Technology (IT) on Public  Administration – 6 – Performance. US: Atlantic International University. Web. Jan-Eric, L., 2000. N ew Public Management. London: Routledge Jennings, E. T Ewalt, J., 1998. â€Å"Interorganizational Coordination, Administrative Consolidation and Policy Performance.† Public Administration Review, Vol. 58, No.5:417-428. Kaboolian, L., 1998. â€Å"The New Public Management: Challenging the Boundaries of the Management vs. Administration Debate.† Public Administration Review, Vol. 58, No.189-193. Kate, M. Stephen, P., 2002. New public management: current trends and future  Prospects. London: Routledge. Kelly, R. M., 1998. â€Å"An Inclusive Democratic Polity, Representative Bureaucracies, and The Public Management.† Public Administration Review, Vol. 58, No. 3: 201-207. Larbi, G, A., 1999. The New Public Management Approach and Crisis States. Geneva: United Nations. Web. Lynn, L., 1998. â€Å"The New Public Management: How to Transform a Theme into a Legacy.† Public Administration Review, Vol. 58, No. 3: 231-237. Mathiasen, D., 1996. The New Public Manag ement and its Critics. Paper presented at The Conference on the New Public Management in International Perspective, St. Gallen, Switzerland, July 11-13. Matland, R., 1995. â€Å"Synthesizing the Implementation Literature: The Ambiguity-Conflict  Model of Policy Implementation.† Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, Vol. 5, No. 2:145-174. Mazamanian, D. Sabatier P., 1983. Implementation and Public Policy. Glenview,  IL: Scott, Foresman. Mead, L., 1996. â€Å"Welfare Policy: The Administrative Frontier,† Journal of Policy Analysis  And Management, Vol. 15, No. 4: 587-600. Milward, H. B., ed., 1996. Symposium on â€Å"The Hollow State: Capacity, Control and  Performance in Interorganizational Settings.† Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory. Vol. 6, No. 2:193-313. Osborne, S., 2002. Public Management London: Routledge. Peters, B. G. Pierre, J., 1998. â€Å"Governance without Government? Rethinking Public  Administration.à ¢â‚¬  Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, Vol. 8, No. 2: 223-243. Pollitt, C., 1994. The essential public manager: Open university Press. London: Mc-Graw-Hill Education. Rhodes, R., 1996. â€Å"The New Governance: Governing without Government.† Political  Studies, No. 44: 652-657. Stamp, J. C., 1923. ‘The Contrast between the Administration of Business and  Public Affairs,’ Journal of Public Administration, 1:158-171. Terry, L., 1998. â€Å"Administrative Leadership, Neo-Managerialism, and the Public  Management Movement.† Public Administration Review, Vol. 58, No. 3: 194-200. Tom, C., 2007. Transcending new public management: the transformation of public  Sector Reform. Hampshire: Ash gate Publishing Limited. Yamamoto, H., 2003. New Public Management-Japan’s Practice. Tokyo: IIPS Publications. This research paper on New Public Management was written and submitted by user Butterfly to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here. New Public Management Introduction According to Schedler and Proeller (2010), one of the most significant areas in the existence of governments and governance structures is public management. Political developments and debates in a substantial number of states today revolve around issues of accountability and the need for proper structures of management.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on New Public Management specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The reason behind this is that there is growth in the limitation of the amount of resources, yet the needs and demands of people have kept swelling at an alarming pace. Therefore, from all angles, it can be noted that public management is the tool through which the resources of a society can be distributed and administered better in order to meet the needs of the citizens in different countries in the world. In the recent times, increased calls have emerged highlighting the need for improving practi ces in public management. The most critical question to ask is the reason why demand for reforms in public management across different countries has been rising in the recent times. It is vital to note that these demands are still persistent in a substantial number of countries across the globe (Schedler Proeller, 2010). In this paper, it is argued that adoption of new public management is the best way through which governments can attain best practices in public sector management. The need for changes in public administration emanates from the flaws that have been dominant in the public policy formulation and implementation, which dictates the manner in which public management is carried out. Most of the needs that necessitate the introduction of newer practices in public administration are related to the malpractices that were prevalent in the way public management practices were conducted in a number of political regimes across the world. Other reasons revolve around current dev elopments, thus the need for public administrators to adapt to the developments to improve the discharge of public administration practices. The concept of new public management began gaining prominence from early 1980s. It entailed the need for change in government policies in order to make the public sector efficient.Advertising Looking for essay on government? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This means that there were weaknesses in government policies, which impeded the full development of public sectors. It is argued that the concept of new public management is highly desired as it offers a wide room for improvement of public management. However, there are a number of policy areas that can impede the full realization of new public management (Shillabeer, Buss Rousseau, 2011). This paper explores the concept of new public management. The paper begins by exploring the rationale behind the development of the concept of new p ublic management. In the analysis of the pros and cons of new public administration, the paper will focus on two main policy areas: Governance and accountability and the incorporation of new practices in public administration. Understanding new public management New public management can be traced from the late 20th century. This is the time when most countries across the world had focused on the path of growth after freeing themselves from colonial attachments. This period also marks the beginning of aggressive development in technology and investment in all kinds of innovations for the public good. This denoted changes in various structures and prevailing systems of governance. The conception of new public administration can be cited from these developments. The question that needs to be asked is what is new in public management. This can be answered by looking at the real practices, which reflect the orientation of new public management (Argyriades, 2002). Schedler and Proeller ( 2010) observe that new public administration entails the application of new principles of management in the public sector in order to improve the outcomes of public policy in the public sector. Other people argue that new public management is strategy-oriented, unlike ancient public management that was seen as a mere means of discharging public functions. New public administration borrows heavily from the business commercial world, where organizations discharge their functions with the aim of minimizing losses and maximizing profits. While the public sector is still viewed as a sector that does not work for profits, it is run within the context of the modern economy. This means that modern governments have to ensure that the public sector is run in a manner that enhances the minimization of wastage of public resources and increase the rate at which public goods and services meet the demands of the citizenry.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on New Public Managemen t specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In order to fulfil the ever rising public needs amidst the constant and, in a number of instances, diminishing public resources, there is need for the political leadership, through public technocrats, to develop strategies of management. The strategies of management that are often applied in business and other not-for-profit making institutions have been found to be effective in improving public management (Clarence, 2002). According to Schedler and Proeller (2010), another important pointer to the application of strategy in the contemporary public management and new public management is the question of emerging challenges, and the need for the incorporation of strategies to deal with such challenges within the spectrum of public governance. The concept of public governance in the ancient times, before the emergence of new public management, focused on centralized tendencies of management. In central ized administration, public functions are discharged basing on the principle of bureaucracy. Therefore, functions were discharged not basing on the desire to attain better outcomes, but basing on the fact that the procedures were followed. This did away with the aspect of working for results. This does not, however, mean that bureaucracy is totally eliminated in the new public administration. However, only the positive qualities of bureaucracy are retained in the new public management. Just as in strategic management, most elements of bureaucracy have been eliminated since they impose difficulties on the efficient coordination of administrative functions. Basing on this point, it can be said that the new public administration borrows some practices from the old public administration (Shillabeer, Buss Rousseau, 2011). The main development in new public administration is the restructure of the structures of administration and governance to capture the emerging needs in the public dom ain, as well as embrace changes in the governance environment. This means that the new public administration is set in a manner that makes it diverse enough to capture all the contemporary developments.Advertising Looking for essay on government? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More By capturing contemporary developments, the degree to which the new public administration can lead to the attainment of the needs and demands of the modern citizenry is widened. The rate of partnership and learning in new public administration is highly embraced. This gives public administration a new meaning and a new look. Borrowing from the practices of benchmark institutions in terms of administrations helps public managers learn from the institutions by applying the managerial practices from such institutions in public administration. This is because benchmark institutions still manage to attain a desirable level of performance irrespective of working with constrained resources. One of the enablers of performance, which is what is being taken up in new public administration, is the enhancement of the capacity and ability to deploy strategic management practices in administration (Shillabeer, Buss Rousseau, 2011) Talking about new public administration is a pointer to the exist ence of old public administration. The concept of new public management originated from the industrialized countries, where their citizenry pushed for reforms in governance. The political regimes that are responsible for overseeing the functioning of the public service began to be judged based on the level of efficiency in public delivery (Schedler Proeller, 2010). In order to win the confidence of the public and an assurance of being re-elected, political regimes were forced to show and exercise their commitment in reforming the public sector. Therefore, a series of public sector reforms were developed and enforced by each regime. However, as at this time, these reforms were only pictured as a political tool by political regimes. The real sense of change in public administration across the globe can be traced from the last two decades of the 20th century, where citizens of most countries became highly enlightened and pressurized political leadership to embrace changes in public ad ministration (Argyriades, 2002). As it is in the contemporary times, most governments have attuned to new public administration. The question to ask at this point is whether the new public administration can be sustainable. Also, the other concern is whether all governments have the capacity to fully attune to new practices in public administration. It can be said that the new public administration has taken deeper roots in the industrialized world because of the advances in policy development in most public sector segments. In the developing world, the public policy environment is still highly volatile, thereby making it difficult for these countries to pursue key policy goals in key policy areas, which can enhance new public administration (Schedler Proeller, 2010). However, most countries are showing positive prospects in the development of legislative reforms in the public domain, which can help in enforcing new public management practices. However, there are still a number of bridges in key policy areas that need to be developed in these countries in order for the countries to fully cross to new public management. This allows the citizenry to enjoy the fruits of new public management. The fruits of new public administration include increased transparency in deployment of public funds and other resources, quicker access to public services and the increase in the number and quality of public service offering of public services in all public institutions within a given country. According to Argyriades (2002), the essence of new public administration is to separate public servants from the political process of the country. In the old public administration, this phenomenon was quite rampant. It is known as the politicization of the public service. Thus, employees worked as a formality. There was a lot of political interference in public sector management, which interfered with procedures of administration and work in public offices. Certain norms and behaviou rs were given priority, thereby depriving the public servants a substantial number of privileges that were enjoyed by the employees in the private sector. While one could easily argue that the norms and the systematized codes of behaviour in old public administration helped to ensure that the identity of the public service was preserved, these practices demeaned the public employees of their rights and privileges. This is cited as one of the reasons to why public servants always under-performed. Old public administration did not value performance management practices, like the use of rewards to manage performance (Argyriades, 2002). While the public sector still remains under the control of political regimes, new public management advocates have pressurized for the pursuance of legislation that has aided in minimizing political interference in public sector administration. Furthermore, political elites are no longer left with the mandate of overseeing the performance of public secto r segments. As noted earlier in this discussion, the new public administration embraces technocracy, where public institutions are placed under people who have attained desired qualifications in certain areas. Thus, qualified personnel are left to administer the public service sector in areas in which they have the qualifications. Technocracy is one of the most desire principles of new public administration. With highly minimized political interference and the embrace of accountability, technocracy has proven to enhance public sector delivery and performance (Clarence, 2002). According to Bovaird (2005), the new public management presents a picture of governance that has multiple inclinations in different sectors. New public sector should be sustainable in the sense that it has to embrace social, economic and political development and long run sustainability. According to the proponents of new public administration, the new public administration has been a key contributing factor to the development of a substantial number of economies in the world. Among these economies are most of the national economies of Western Europe, as well as most of the emerging economies of Eastern Europe and the South East Asia. There are three vital areas of strategic public administration in new public administration that help public administration to bring about social cohesion and economic growth and transformation. These are the consideration of the public sector as the sole industry within a country, treating the public sector as the main policy making and regulating institutions, and the consideration of the public sector as the main service provider in the country. These factors can play out well in a cycle, resulting in better public governance. When all these are put into consideration in the realm of new public management, public sector reforms are easily developed and implemented (Hondeghem, 2000). Governance and accountability in new public administration When public ad ministration is mentioned, public accountability always comes up. Public accountability is one of the key areas in public policy cycles that still present a lot of challenges in the performance of public sectors. Governance and accountability is the most critical area of governance. While there have been a lot of debates and calls to improve governance and accountability in public administration, it is still evident that a considerable number of impediments still stand in the way to the attainment of this aspect in public administration. Even in the realm of new public management, there exist a lot of pointers that denote that desired governances and accountability have not been attained. It is vital to understand the meaning of these two terms and where they lie in the public policy cycle (Erkkilà ¤, 2007). This can help one to know whether they have been fully ignited in new public administration. Governance is linked to the administration. Governance entails the aspect of entrus ting political systems with resources such that they can utilize these resources to meet the needs of public in the country. On the other hand, accountability entails the best practices in utilization of resources to meet the intended needs. In the context of public administration, accountability entails the ability to deploy public goods to meet the needs of the public (Osborne, 2006). According to Erkkilà ¤ (2007), accountability goes further in that it entails the aspect of responsibility for action in public administration. This implies that public servants should be responsible for the course they take while utilizing public resources in meeting the needs of the public. With all the improvements that come with new public management, accountability in public administration is raised. The question of accountability in public governance still remains elusive even in the contemporary times where most governments are deemed to be applying the practices of new public administration in the public sector. In most upcoming democracies that are applying new public administration, there are still a number of loopholes in public procurement procedures, which makes it hard for the countries to attain quality of accountability in public administration. While a significant number of positive changes in public governance are witnessed under new public administration, the question is whether the government can totally eliminate corruption and mismanagement of public resources. While the new public administration has been geared towards eliminating the notion of ‘the public’ in public administration, it is doubtful whether this notion can be totally drawn away. Accountability often begins with the orientation of the mind of a person. This showcases the fact pure accountability in public administration is a hard thing to attain. This is because of the existence of a low sense of responsibility in public services due to the notion that public servants are utili zing public resources (Hondeghem, 2000). According to Makrydemetres (2002), ethics and accountability are vital in contemporary public administration. However, there still exist a considerable number of problems of legitimacy in a substantial number of countries. Most governments seem to dwell on the introduction of performance management in public administration as the main way of dealing with problems of legitimacy in public governance. This is causing citizens to sit back as they expect public servants and political elites to exercise ethical and responsible conduct. This cannot be attained in a wishful way. There is a need for the citizenry to demand for the development of legislation that can help them push for ethical responsibility and accountability of public servants and politicians (Makrydemetres, 2002). According to Kernaghan (2000), traditional bureaucratic ethics have been replaced by new problems in public management; therefore, it is quite challenging to attain ethica l responsibility as it is supposed in new public administration. The new public administration can result in greater lack of accountability if it is not sufficiently backed by legislation. The newness in public administration is quickly eroded without development of laws to help hold the public servants and politicians accountable in the handling of public resources (Erkkilà ¤, 2007). Legislation is the main backing tool for the public as it helps them to bring to book public servants who seem not be accountable. Some of the key developments in policy and legislation include the development of performance contracts in the public service. Performance contracting has been a key aid in raising the level of public accountability in a number of countries in the world. A notable example is New Zealand, where ministerial accountability has gone high due to enforcement of performance contracting (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2000). Hondeghem (2000) observed that a number of principles of administration that are exercised in new public administration are cited as the pillars that have encouraged responsibility and accountability of public servants. These are devolution and decentralization. Devolution embraces equity in the distribution of public functions and resources, while decentralization encourages delegation of duties in the public service sector. Decentralization, sometimes referred to as de-bureaucratization, helps reduce the power of public servants by encouraging delegation of authority and work to subordinates. This does not only increase accountability, but also encourages the rate of accomplishment of public functions. Decentralization of functions makes the public service more efficient. Power and continued centralization have been the main source of lack of responsibility and accountability in public administration. There is a rise openness and transparency due to the aspect of service oriented performance in public organizat ions under new public administration. The other notable thing is the growth of the relationship between the private and the public sector. This has also been instrumental in bringing about accountability in public administration. As the public sector interacts with the private sector, a comparison of administrative attributes becomes eminent. This is argued to be the source of the concern about integrity in public administration. This forces the public sector to pay attention to the features of public administration, which embrace the principle of integrity. The principle of integrity is one of the building blocks towards the attainment of a responsible administration in the public service (Hondeghem, 2000). The embrace of change in new public management New public administration entails a considerable number of changes in the structure of management. The rationale behind the embrace of new public administration is to match the public sector with the emerging public needs and demand s. Therefore, a considerable number of changes are implemented in public organizations under new public administration. The need for change in public administration is to improve the efficiency of the public sector delivery, which in turn increases the ability of the public sector to serve other sectors. As argued earlier, new public management considers the public sector to be the central industry that controls the functioning of other sectors in the economy. Arguing from this perspective, the public sector needs to be in the forefront in terms of adapting to new technologies and innovations that aim at increasing efficiency in the public sector delivery, thereby boosting its role in serving other sectors (Hartley, 2005). One notable change in new public administration is the embrace of information and communication technology in public governance. Here, e-governance can be given as a crucial pointer to technology adoption in the public sector. The question that ought to be asked i s whether governments have the capacity to embrace technological changes and innovation in public administration. Also, the embrace of changes requires public organizations to lay a structural foundation on which changes are implemented. This means that most of the old structures of public administration have to be refurnished or totally abolished in order to give room for adoption of new public management practices. This is another policy that is critical in the new public administration, yet it poses a lot of challenges to policy makers in the public sector. This leads to the question of whether public sectors are indeed ready for new public administration. One peculiar thing with management of change is that it poses a lot of challenges to organizational functioning, to the extent that it may be a source of disadvantage to organizational functioning. While innovation is essential for improving the public service, it must come through change. Only governments that are equipped wit h sufficient policy and resources can be in a better position when it comes to implementation of innovation in public administration. Innovation in governance is an aspect of change that needs a pool of resources to implement. It is not necessarily functional as was pointed out in ancient literature in public administration. Hartley (2005) ascertained that there are three key things that can stimulate the environment in readiness for change in public administration. These are policy, research and resources. Policy is critical for the setting up of structures that are receptive to new practices of public management in new public administration. Research is also vital in embracing change in public administration. As opined by the proponents of new public administration, research helps public policy makers to identify areas of public administration that need change and the consequent search for practices for benchmark public institutions, which can be used to effect change in public ad ministration. When new systems of governance are fully realized, citizens often enjoy the resultant public service in public organizations. However, it should be remembered that public sector reforms is a process that is facilitated by resources, often financial resources (Jan-Erik Luc, 1999). This means that the new public administration is a kind of a burden to the citizens, who are the taxpayers. The public expenditure rises in order to sustain public sector reforms under new public administration. This means that citizens are forced to submit more taxes to the government in order to enable the government to implement reforms. However, it is argued that the costs are offset once the new reforms are implemented (Hartley, 2005). Conclusion This paper has explored the concept of new public sector administration. From the paper, it has emerged that a substantial number of countries in the world today are making efforts to make the public service sector be more proactive in terms of performance. The improvement of performance and delivery of the public sector is in the principles of new public administration. The discussion has unveiled a number of benefits of embracing new public administration. Among the benefits of new public administration is the decentralization and debureaucratization of operations in the public sector organizations, which enhances public service delivery. The other benefit of new public sector administration is the opening of learning in the public sector management through the interaction of the public sector with the private sector. However, it has also come out that the embrace of new practices in public sector management still poses a lot of challenges to public administrators and should be given attention by public administrators. References Argyriades, D. (2002). Governance and public administration in the 21st century: New trends and new techniques — Proceedings. General Report. Brussels: International Institute of Administ rative Sciences, 2002, p. 31-64. Bovaird, T. (2005). Public governance: Balancing stakeholder power in a network society. International Review of Administrative Sciences, 71, 217-228. Clarence, E. (2002). Technocracy reinvented: The new evidence based policy movement. Public Policy Administration, 17(3), 1-11. Erkkilà ¤, T. (2007). Governance and accountability – a shift in conceptualisation. Public Administration Quarterly, 31(1), 1-38. Hartley, J. (2005). Innovation in governance and public services: Past and present. Public Money Management, 25(1), 27-34. Hondeghem, A. (2000). Ethics and accountability in a context of governance and new public management. Amsterdam: IOS Press. Jan-Erik, L. Luc, B. (1999). Public sector reform: rationale, trends problems. Canadian Journal of Political Science, 32(2), 384-387. Kernaghan, K. (2000). The post-bureaucratic organisation and public service values. International Review of Administrative Sciences, 66(1), 91-104. Makrydemetres, A. (2002). Dealing with ethical dilemmas in public administration: The â€Å"ALIR† imperatives of ethical reasoning. International Review of Administrative Sciences, 68(2), 251–266. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2000). Trust in government: Ethics measures in OECD countries. Paris: OECD. Osborne, S. (2006). The new public governance? Public Management Review, 8(3), 377-387. Schedler, K., Proeller, I. (2010). Outcome-oriented public management: A responsibility-based approach to the new public management. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Pub. Shillabeer, A., Buss, T. F., Rousseau, D. M. (2011). Evidence-based public management: Practices, issues, and prospects. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. This essay on New Public Management was written and submitted by user Cayson Nolan to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Free Essays on Lost Momentum

Momentum was founded by Delma Iles in 1982. She is well known through out the state of Florida, and has been awarded many different merits. She’s an M.F.A. recipient from New York University, in Dance. She came to Florida aspiring to change, or add to the growing world of arts here in Miami. Since then she has choreographed around 40 different works, all of which for some reason have been given some positive acclaim. Perhaps because I have not seen these other pieces, I am not so easily persuaded that this show was just a fluke. That this company may in fact be talented and all the merits were well deserved, and not awarded simply for merit’s sake. On December 3, Momentum performed a few different pieces from their own repertoire and a fairly new, bold piece that was exciting to watch. These together were presented as â€Å"Dances for the Holiday Spirit.† Unfortunatly, the piece I enjoyed most was choreographed by another artist, Irmah DelValle, not Delma Iles. Briefly, it is to be said that though Irmah DelValle is the Artistic Assistant, it may someday (hopefully sooner than later) be her bold ideas that sky-rocket this company to a new level in the dance community. The piece choreographed by Irmah DelValle was titled â€Å"An Anguished Cry.† (2000) A very exciting piece that used only women, either due to a lack of men, or more over I feel to make a bold statement. Their costumes were reminiscent of the later 80’s. With hot pink and green shirts that blended splendidly into the shadowy cast background and lighting schemes. The movement was more modern with little to no use of any contemporary ballet technique. It was perhaps this contrast that added something more spectacular to its presentation. The women whom performed this gave themselves whole-heartedly to the choreography, something that was not done in any of the other pieces. There were many moments where the audience was captivated, boldly sitting on t... Free Essays on Lost Momentum Free Essays on Lost Momentum Momentum was founded by Delma Iles in 1982. She is well known through out the state of Florida, and has been awarded many different merits. She’s an M.F.A. recipient from New York University, in Dance. She came to Florida aspiring to change, or add to the growing world of arts here in Miami. Since then she has choreographed around 40 different works, all of which for some reason have been given some positive acclaim. Perhaps because I have not seen these other pieces, I am not so easily persuaded that this show was just a fluke. That this company may in fact be talented and all the merits were well deserved, and not awarded simply for merit’s sake. On December 3, Momentum performed a few different pieces from their own repertoire and a fairly new, bold piece that was exciting to watch. These together were presented as â€Å"Dances for the Holiday Spirit.† Unfortunatly, the piece I enjoyed most was choreographed by another artist, Irmah DelValle, not Delma Iles. Briefly, it is to be said that though Irmah DelValle is the Artistic Assistant, it may someday (hopefully sooner than later) be her bold ideas that sky-rocket this company to a new level in the dance community. The piece choreographed by Irmah DelValle was titled â€Å"An Anguished Cry.† (2000) A very exciting piece that used only women, either due to a lack of men, or more over I feel to make a bold statement. Their costumes were reminiscent of the later 80’s. With hot pink and green shirts that blended splendidly into the shadowy cast background and lighting schemes. The movement was more modern with little to no use of any contemporary ballet technique. It was perhaps this contrast that added something more spectacular to its presentation. The women whom performed this gave themselves whole-heartedly to the choreography, something that was not done in any of the other pieces. There were many moments where the audience was captivated, boldly sitting on t...

SAT Punctuation Tips for Commas, Colons, and Dashes

SAT Punctuation Tips for Commas, Colons, and Dashes SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips The SAT Writing and Language section will test you on your knowledge of punctuation. Understandably, many students are utterly confused by commas and semicolons and clueless when it comes to colons and dashes. In this article, I'll eliminate your confusion and explain all of the punctuation rules you need to know to ace SAT Writing. Furthermore, I'll provide practice questions to test you on what you've learned. Punctuation on SAT Writing SAT punctuation questions test you on your knowledge of commas, semicolons, colons, dashes, and apostrophes. In this article, I’ll explain the rules for all punctuation except apostrophes because I’ve devoted a separate article to apostrophes. Excluding apostrophe questions, there are about 4-6 punctuation questions on the SAT. Most of the punctuation rules are fairly straightforward; if you spend the time to learn and understand these rules, you should be able to correctly answer the punctuation questions on SAT Writing. The Rule for All SAT Punctuation Questions:When in Doubt, Leave It Out For the SAT, if you’re unsure if a sentence requires punctuation, it’s better to err on the side of leaving out punctuation. Only use commas, semicolons, colons, or dashes if you identify a situation that requires them. You’re more likely to miss a punctuation question by adding unnecessary punctuation than by leaving out punctuation that’s needed. Take a look at this example: The comma before â€Å"that† is unnecessary. A common error on SAT punctuation questions is to randomly place a comma or semicolon within a sentence, especially in sentences in which there are other commas. In this sentence, answer choice D is the correct answer. No punctuation is needed. Remember that if punctuation isn’t needed, you should leave it out. Now I’ll go over specific rules to help you determine when to use punctuation. The 6 SAT Comma Rules While there are a multitude of comma rules, the SAT only tests a few of them. I’ll explain the comma rules that are important to know for the SAT. #1: Surround Non-Restrictive Clauses and Appositives With Commas The key rule to remember here is that a portion of a sentence that can be removed without changing the meaning of the sentence must be surrounded by commas. Relative Clauses: Restrictive vs. Non-Restrictive Relative clauses are dependent clauses that describe a noun and start with a relative pronoun or adverb like â€Å"who,† â€Å"that,† â€Å"which,† or â€Å"where.† The basic rule is that restrictive clauses shouldn’t be surrounded by commas and non-restrictive clauses should be. What’s a Restrictive Clause? Restrictive clauses are essential to the meaning of the sentence. You can’t take a restrictive clause out of a sentence without significantly changing the meaning of the sentence. Here’s an example: People who sleep well are more alert. If you remove the clause â€Å"who sleep well,† the meaning of the sentence would be substantially changed. You’d be left with â€Å"People are more alert.† Because you can’t remove the clause without changing the meaning of the sentence, the clause shouldn’t be surrounded by commas. What’s a Non-Restrictive Clause? A non-restrictive clause isn’t essential to the meaning of the sentence. If you got rid of the clause, the sentence would still make sense, and its meaning wouldn’t change. Here’s an example sentence with the non-restrictive clause underlined. Nate, who works as a software engineer, majored in computer science. The clause â€Å"who works as a software engineer† adds more information about Nate, but if it were removed, the meaning of the sentence would be the same. There would be less information about Nate, but the sentence still states that he majored in computer science. This is what the sentence looks like after removing the non-restrictive clause: Nate majored in computer science. What Is an Appositive? An appositive is a descriptive phrase that doesn’t include a verb. Like a non-restrictive clause, an appositive can be removed without changing the meaning of the sentence. Here’s an example sentence with the appositive underlined: Torsha, a fan of celebrity gossip, loves watching The Wendy Williams Show. If we get rid of the appositive, the sentence still has the same meaning: Torsha loves watching The Wendy Williams Show. If you’re unsure if a phrase is an appositive, eliminate the phrase. If the meaning of the sentence is unchanged, the descriptive phrase is an appositive that should be surrounded by commas. The rule that appositives must be surrounded by commas is one of the most often tested comma rules on the SAT. SAT Example Because the only difference in the answer choices is the placement of commas, we know this question is testing our knowledge of comma rules. In this sentence, the phrase â€Å"an associate professor of geology at Ohio State† is an appositive. The phrase describes Jason Box, and it can be removed without changing the meaning of the sentence. All we have to do is apply the rule that appositives must be surrounded by commas. The error in the original sentence is that there is no comma after â€Å"Ohio State.† The correct answer is C. There is no comma before the appositive in answer choice B, and answer choice D places a comma within the appositive unnecessarily, and there isn’t a comma at the end of it. Pretty comma (stealingsand/Flickr) #2: Use Commas After Introductory Phrases or Clauses Any time a sentence starts with a dependent clause or modifying phrase, it must be followed by a comma. Here are some examples: Although I want to go to Hawaii for Joe’s wedding, I have to work. In high school, Suzy was the class clown. Unable to focus because of the loud construction work outside, Harry went to the library to study. SAT Example On the SAT, a sentence may include an introductory dependent clause or phrase, and you have to select the proper punctuation that follows the introduction. Only a comma can come after an introductory phrase or clause that isn’t a complete thought. The introductory phrase, from â€Å"Living† to â€Å"ethic,† modifies the Harvey Girls. Because the phrase isn’t a complete thought, meaning it can’t stand alone as a sentence, we must put a comma at the end of the phrase. The correct answer is D. Answer choice C is wrong because the addition of â€Å"and† makes the sentence incorrect. When an introductory phrase describes a noun, the noun being modified must come directly after the comma. In this sentence, the phrase is modifying the Harvey Girls. #3: Use Commas to Separate Items in a List You’re probably familiar with this comma rule: in lists of three or more items, you must place a comma after every item except the last. Check out this example: During spring break, my days will consist of eating, watching Netflix, and sleeping. The three items on the list are â€Å"eating,† â€Å"watching Netflix,† and sleeping. Because there are three items, there are commas after the first two. The last comma in the list before â€Å"and,† known as the oxford comma, is technically optional, and you won’t be tested on whether or not to use it. However, every list question I've seen uses the oxford comma. Here’s another example: Participation in sports teaches many important values, including perseverance, teamwork, and dedication. The three items on this list are â€Å"perseverance,† â€Å"teamwork,† and â€Å"dedication.† On the SAT, there may be incorrectly placed commas placed before the first item or after the â€Å"and† prior to the last item. In the sentence above, you can’t place a comma after â€Å"including† or before â€Å"dedication.† Incorrect: Participation in sports teaches many values, including, perseverance, teamwork, and dedication. Incorrect: Participation in sports teaches many values, including perseverance, teamwork, and, dedication. Correct: Participation in sports teaches many values, including perseverance, teamwork, and dedication. Sleep is important. (RelaxingMusic/Flickr) SAT Example As we know, items in a list must be separated by commas. The three items in this list are "yogurt manufacturers," "food scientists," and "government officials." The semicolon in the original sentence is being used incorrectly. In answer choice D, there is an unnecessary comma placed after â€Å"and.† The correct answer is C. #4: Don’t Use Commas to Separate Complete Thoughts Using a comma to separate two complete thoughts creates a grammar error known as a comma splice. Here’s an example of a comma splice: Dorothy failed her test, it was extremely difficult. The clauses before and after the comma are complete thoughts that could stand alone as sentences. There are a few ways to correct a comma splice. You can put a conjunction after the comma: Dorothy failed her test, but it was extremely difficult. Also, you can put a relative pronoun after the comma: Dorothy failed her test, which was extremely difficult. Finally, you can use a semicolon or colon to correctly separate two complete thoughts: Dorothy failed her test; it was extremely difficult. Dorothy failed her test: it was extremely difficult. Next, take a look at acomma splice example from the real SAT. amboo who?/Flickr SAT Example The comma after â€Å"instance† is incorrect because the clauses before and after the comma are complete thoughts. Answer choice C is still a comma splice. Answer choice D is wrong because the resulting sentences don’t make sense in context. The correct answer is B. A colon comes after a complete thought, and it sets up a list or explanation. In this sentence, an explanation follows the colon. Even if you were unsure of colon rules (which I’ll explain later), you could have selected the right answer by eliminating wrong answer choices. #5: Don’t Use a Comma Between an Adjective and a Noun You can’t place a comma between an adjective and noun. Check out this example sentence: Incorrect: Trista bought a blue, truck. Correct: Trista bought a blue truck. On the SAT, this comma rule tends to come up when a title is being used as an adjective before a noun. Here are a couple of examples: Incorrect: I enjoy reading the books of acclaimed writer, Malcolm Gladwell. Correct: I enjoy reading the books of acclaimed writer Malcolm Gladwell. Many people incorrectly assume there should be a comma; however, in this sentence, â€Å"writer† is describing Malcolm Gladwell, and you can’t place a comma between an adjective and a noun. I like his books. (Michelle Tribe/Flickr) Similarly, if the title comes before a possessive noun, there shouldn’t be a comma after the title or the possessive. Check out this example: Incorrect: You are extremely excited to read PrepScholar writer, Justin Berkman’s next article. Incorrect: You are extremely excited to read PrepScholar writer Justin Berkman’s, next article. Correct: You are extremely excited to read PrepScholar writer Justin Berkman’s next article. SAT Example Remember that there shouldn't be a comma after a title used as an adjective or a possessive noun. In this sentence, there are commas placed after both "painter" and "Georges Seurat's." We need to remove the commas to correct the sentence. Only answer choice D removes both unnecessary commas. Semicolons on the SAT The only thing you have to know about semicolons is that they are used to separate two complete thoughts. You should be able to replace the semicolon with a period and have two complete sentences. Here’s an example: Incorrect: Because Jesse is my friend; I invited him to my party. Correct: Jesse is my friend; I invited him to my party. The second sentence is correct because the semicolon is separating two independent clauses. On the SAT, semicolons are often used incorrectly. SAT Example Immediately, we know that the semicolon is incorrect because the phrase after the semicolon can’t stand alone as a sentence. Now we have to determine the correct comma placement. Answer choices B and C are wrong because you can’t place a comma after a preposition. Answer choice D is correct; the comma separates the independent clause from the explanatory phrase. Keep in mind that commas often separate independent clauses from dependent clauses or descriptive phrases. Colons on the SAT Colons can connect two independent clauses, but they're usually used to introduce lists and explanations. Colons must come after a complete sentence. You should be able to put a period in place of the colon and have a sentence that makes sense. Incorrect: Jasmine brought everything she needed for the exam, including: pencils, a backpack, and a calculator. Correct: Jasmine brought everything she needed for the exam: pencils, a backpack, and a calculator. The first sentence is incorrect because the part that comes before the colon isn’t a complete thought. Also, a colon should be used instead of a comma to separate a noun from items on a list: Incorrect: Lewis was excited to meet his relatives, his aunt, uncle, and cousins from the Bahamas. Correct: Lewis was excited to meet his relatives: his aunt, uncle, and cousins from the Bahamas. The first sentence makes it seem like â€Å"his relatives† is part of the list. However, all of the people he is meeting are his relatives, and the portion after the colon lists the relatives whom he will be meeting. Additionally, colons can be used to provide explanation. Here’s an example: Sandy repeatedly complained about her least favorite restaurants: places where you can often hear loud conversations and crying babies. In the above sentence, the colon is placed after a complete thought, and the portion of the sentence after the colon describes the type of restaurants that Sandy dislikes. You could substitute the colon with a comma, but you need punctuation to separate the complete thought from the explanatory phrase. SAT Example The portion of the sentence after â€Å"army† describes the other type of army. We need punctuation to separate the complete thought up until â€Å"army† from the phrase elaborating on this group of people. Answer choice C is incorrect because the phrase following â€Å"army† isn’t a complete thought, and answer choice B is wrong because the dash before â€Å"by† is unnecessary (I’ll explain dashes next). The correct answer is D. Dashes on the SAT Dashes aren’t very common on the SAT, but they do come up. They can be used to mark off a non-essential clause or phrase (like a comma) or introduce a list or explanation (like a colon). If dashes are used with non-essential clauses or phrases, you can’t mix them with commas. You have to go with either two dashes or two commas. Here’s an example: Incorrect: Ryan, an energetic teenager- can’t sit still during class. Correct: Ryan- an energetic teenager- can’t sit still during class. Correct: Ryan, an energetic teenager, can’t sit still during class. This is an example using a dash like a colon to set up an explanation: Correct: Ryan can’t sit still during class- he’s an energetic teenager. Lastly, a dash can be used for stylistic reasons to interrupt a statement or create a dramatic pause. Check out this example: Byron spent hours painting a beautiful picture- and then his little brother destroyed it. You don’t have to worry too much about using dashes for this type of sentence. If a dash is the correct answer in a similar sentence, then you’ll be able to eliminate the other answer choices because they’ll be obviously incorrect. SAT Example The phrase from â€Å"popularized† to â€Å"Coolidge† is a non-essential phrase. You can get rid of the phrase without altering the meaning of the sentence. The error is that the phrase is first marked off with a dash and then a comma. Remember that you can’t mix dashes and commas when marking off non-essential phrases and clauses. Therefore, to maintain consistency, the correct answer is B. Punctuation cookies! (David Erickson/Flickr) The Most Important Rules and Strategies for SAT Punctuation Because we’ve gone over a number of punctuation rules and ways to correct punctuation errors, I’m going to sum up the most important points to help you correctly answer SAT Writing punctuation questions. Important Rules Surround appositives and non-essential phrases with commas. Use commas to separate items in a list. Don’t use commas in between two independent clauses. Semicolons connect two independent clauses. Colons come after a complete sentence and set up a list or explanation. Dashes can be used to mark off non-essential clauses or introduce lists and explanations. Strategies Leave out punctuation unless you identify a situation that requires it. You’ll never be asked to choose between interchangeable punctuation marks: if two answer choices serve the same function, then both will be wrong. Use process of elimination to determine the right answer on punctuation questions. Many of the wrong answers will have errors that you’ll be quickly able to detect. Eliminating the wrong answers can sometimes be easier than choosing the right one. Practice Questions Try these practice questions using the knowledge you've acquired. Studies show that children; who are physically active may perform better in the classroom. A. NO CHANGE B. children, C. children D. children: Last week, Theodore- who is an extremely conscientious student, won a $10,000 scholarship; his parents are incredibly proud. A. NO CHANGE B. student- won C. student won D. student: won Julie was thoroughly confused: she couldn’t figure out where she put her car keys. A. NO CHANGE B. confused, she C. confused she, D. confused she Paul was overcome with joy when he saw actor, Keanu Reeves, in the parking lot of a McDonald’s restaurant. A. NO CHANGE B. actor, Keanu Reeves C. actor: Keanu Reeves D. actor Keanu Reeves I hurried home from school to find Max, my dog that I’ve had for five years chewing on my favorite pair of shoes. A. NO CHANGE B. had, for five years chewing C. had for five years, chewing D. had, for five, years chewing Answers: 1. C, 2. B, 3. A, 4. D, 5. C What's Next? If you thought punctuation wasn't tested on the SAT because you're only familiar with the old SAT, read this article to find out how the SAT Writing section has changed. Also, make sure you know and understand the most important grammar rules for SAT Writing (coming soon). Finally, as you're preparing for the SAT, learn the pros and cons of different prep methods. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points? Check out our best-in-class online SAT prep classes. We guarantee your money back if you don't improve your SAT score by 160 points or more. Our classes are entirely online, and they're taught by SAT experts. If you liked this article, you'll love our classes. Along with expert-led classes, you'll get personalized homework with thousands of practice problems organized by individual skills so you learn most effectively. We'll also give you a step-by-step, custom program to follow so you'll never be confused about what to study next. Try it risk-free today:

Watch the video then answer the question Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Watch the video then answer the question - Essay Example Therefore, each business needs to be interested in ‘something’. But what is this ‘something’ they or Profit? The answer is to ‘care’ for the society that is an important stakeholder for any business that cares all over the world. Jenipher with her opening speech tells us that each magazine and TV channel you open, tells you about the green living and the environmental family living, to be precise this can only be achieved when the issue of care is integrated. The guy who is talking in the video too is motivated to start the company with the aim of reaching people in the ministry and achieving a positive environmental agenda. It is great to see they put quality first when giving methods to approach to social responsibility. That means the issue of care is prioritized. Not only does caring make you like a complete citizen but it boost the company’s image, brand and reputation in the eyes of those you are serving to your goods and services and the public at large. Partnering with the environmental factor like the wind energy makes everything environmental friendly. These guys are more into recycling their used product material and most occasions they are so conscious with the emission of CO2 in the environment. They plant more trees to counter the CO2 emitted into the environment thus keeping both the external and the internal environment clean to its workers and consumers at large. In conclusion Most of the companies use social marketing as a way of differentiating themselves in the market. The company on the video, for instance, gives forth its product with a caution of the product not causing any harm to its customer. The male speaker terms that product that has an effect on the consumer as ‘unhealthy’. In fact, he terms it as ‘not sounding healthy’. To be precise, care should be the main goal for any company to its clients as it gives them an upper hand in the business environment. Good packaging, branding and pricing of the products

Cas a Constant Struggle Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Cas a Constant Struggle - Essay Example However, aside from simply being able to give each person the capability of doing things that they ought to complete as individual beings in the community, liberty has also paved way to a wider and more diverse society that is populated by individually aspired population who wants to make a name of their own within the society that they are living in. THE United States Bill of Rights has generated so much interest that in 50 years, some 700 books have been written about it-over 40 of them this year alone. Since 1991 is the 200th anniversary of the adoption of the Bill of Rights, people were even more interested in this subject. Yet, a poll revealed that 59 percent of the American public do not know what the Bill of Rights is. When the Constitution of the United States was ratified in 1788, it allowed for amendments that would clarify positions not clearly defined in the Constitution. In 1791 the first ten amendments were added to the Constitution. These ten amendments had to do with liberty and became known as the Bill of Rights, for they guarantee to the people of the United States certain individual liberties. The word freedom in its broad sense as used in the Bible and in the field of government means merely "acting at will". "Freedom is the state of being free; liberty; self-determination. The power of acting, in the character of a moral personality, according to the dictates of the will, without other check, hindrance, or prohibition than such as may be imposed by just and necessary laws and the duties of social life." The word "liberty", as generally used, is practically synonymous with the word "freedom". "Liberty is freedom; exemption from extraneous control. The power of the will to follow the dictates of its unrestricted choice, and to direct the external acts of the individual without restraint, coercion, or control from other persons is the main idea supported by the thoughts of applying liberty in the human society. The capability of human individuals to act upon what they want and to react upon what they see the way that they want to is a clear depiction of the actual applicat ion of liberty today. According to some social psychologists, the want of being free and being able to do what they want is innate in humans. It is a major part of the human behavior that sets people apart from the being that animals follow. Everybody in the society wants to appear better than what is usually seen from others. The initial want for fame is an undeniable cause for such thinking. This is primarily the reason why the dream of having an equal society is most likely believed to have been hindered by the forces implied through the application of individual liberty. So as soon as the news spread that a constitution was in the making, freedom-loving people began a movement for a national bill of rights that would guarantee their liberties and would separate Church from State. If the people were in such fear of a centralized national government, why would they create it After the Declaration of Independence was signed in 1776, a new governmental system was needed. British rul e in each colony came to an end. The states then adopted the

Native American and The US government Essay -- essays papers

Native American and The US government The Iroquois Nation was a nation of five tribes, which was comprised of Mohawks, Senecas, Oneidas, Cayugas, and Onondagas. These tribes were originally separated, but later brought together by two Indians named Hiawatha and Deganawidah. Hiawatha seemed to be the spokesman while Deganawidah took on the role as a philosopher. These two men formed a nation where some of the ideas are still intact today. One aspect that made them so strong was the way in which they governed themselves. Women in their society were basically in charge, except for the Sachems who were representatives appointed by the heads of the Ohwachiras. When this federal assembly met, the Sachems voted as tribes instead as individuals. This in many ways can be compared to present day government electoral votes. Another aspect I found that created a strong unity was the arrangement of power, which was demonstrated in their seating arrangement. The Mohawks and Senecas sat on one side, while the Oneidas and Cayugas on the other. The two tribes were separated with the Onondagas sitting between them. This arrangement was a lot like present day’s balance of power in the three different branches of the Federal Government. The government of the Iroquois Nation has set themselves apart from almost all other Indians of North America and made it a powerful force in denouncing the Indians as being savages. Today’s Native American has adopted many of the ideas of the Iroquois Nation. Native American history is handed down amongst the tribes through spoken language and rituals. Native American religion is centered on the idea that every day items as well as the nature surrounding them can possess spirit. Euro-Christian’s views are more anonymous as to religion and more scientific concerning their history. Native American’s view of history contains many inconclusive facts when looked at from a European point of view. When you consider their lack of a written language, there are many instances where they do name specific places from which they originate. Unlike the Euro-Christians, these places the Native American’s speak of can be found today. In contrast, Euro-Christian religion/history speaks of the Garden of Eden, but with no specific location as to where the garden can be found. Native American history is interwoven with... ...for what they needed to exist, not to turn a profit and destroy nature (the wilderness). Native Americans thought of gifts as symbolic gestures of friendship and peace at first. They would look at all trade as an exchange of gifts. They would have feasts after trades with the French, for instance to bolster the moral and finalize a deal. Even when the stakes were high and the Europeans knew that it was a gift and not a trade, the natives thought it to be a gift. When the Europeans traded gifts to the Natives for land, the Natives assumed they were trading a gift for the use of land, not knowing that land can be owned. Land was a sacred thing to the Natives and I doubt they would have traded any of it, if they knew the implications of these gifts they were receiving (in trade). The Europeans on the other hand knew that the natives didn’t know what some of these trades meant. A few Europeans tried to explain it to the natives, but to no avail. The Natives didn’t understand to the Europeans delight. They used this against the Natives who couldn’t have known the value of what they were giving up. The Europeans were at fault by knowing these trades to be absurd and unfair.

Brave New World: A Linguistic Analysis

The novel Brave New World by Aldous Huxley tries to show us the extreme consequences of social planning. As Huxley makes it, it is a project begun in philosophy, and ending in a few philosophers exercising control over larger society in order to suppress philosophy among the generality. The remnant of philosophers has earned the wisdom that thinking is deleterious to human happiness and social stability. Therefore the overriding goal of the 27th century world community is to suppress the natural human inclinations.In effect the community is only of the small coterie of philosophers at the helm, for the rest of humanity is maintained at a bestial level of existence by their machinations. They are bred artificially, and then raised through constant conditioning, all designed to make them function on their animal instincts alone, and so that they abhor the least tendency to reflection. All are made sexually sterile, and then encouraged to dwell on the sexual act with promiscuous abandon .Care is taken that the promiscuous partners do not fall in love, for love arouses the noble tendencies, and theses are dangerous to the status quo. Otherwise, any substantial thought in nipped in the bud, for the inhabitants of this society are encouraged to take the soma drug at the least onset of a serious thought process. It has been worked out that a hierarchy is necessary for this society to function, and according a five-fold caste system has been applied to the make-up of this society – from the alphas and betas at the top, to the deltas and epsilons at the bottom.The breeding and conditioning takes place according to this scheme. It is a triumph of logic, and yet it is also the death of the human. This conflict is the central theme of the novel. The opening section of the novel presents to us this theme variously and in poignant fashion. This essay carries out a linguistic analysis of the opening chapter, which sheds light on the overall theme. The general impression given is that society has progressed very far, so that logic and science have completely prevailed.The Director of the Hatcheries is describing to some students the process of artificially breeding the citizens of this society. His account tells us that it is a highly advanced process, and the machinery seems to be functioning flawlessly. As he enters the fertilizing room, there are fifty Fertilizer staff immersed in their work, and so the group is met with a â€Å"scarcely breathing silence, the absentminded, soliloquising hum or whistle, of absorbed concentration† (Huxley 2004, p. 16). All the clues point to a highly sophisticated society working on the factory principle.The factory principle is so esteemed years are counted from the year that the industrialist Henry Ford brought out his first mass-production car, the model T, which was in the year 1914. The present year is said to be 632 A. F. – the latter stands for â€Å"after Ford† (Ibid 15). But the fact ory is producing human beings. The cold calculation that is involved in this process reminds us of death rather than life. The suggestion is that the genesis of human being is also a process whereby humanity dies. Therefore, the general atmosphere painted is deathly, cold and uninspiring.â€Å"A SQUAT grey building of only thirty-four stories† (Ibid, p. 15). describes the Hatcheries Central, and defines a drab setting, to juxtapose it against its momentous function. Winter conditions are maintained to preserve the eggs and the sperm, and winter is also intimated in a symbolic sense. â€Å"Wintriness responded to wintriness. The overalls of the workers were white, their hands gloved with a pale corpse-coloured rubber. The light was frozen, dead, a ghost† (Ibid). The general impression is that this is not a place of life, but of death.The conflict is also between knowledge and ignorance. We are privy to a society where the excess of knowledge has begotten its antithesis, which is a will to ignorance. The society is based on a highly philosophical design, and yet the philosophy behind it is not supposed to be known by the citizens, because the entire object is to eradicate thinking. Thus the motto of World Society is emblazoned on the top of the entrance to the Hatcheries: â€Å"COMMUNITY, IDENTITY, STABILITY† (Ibid). The only possible way for the entire world to live as one community is to suppress thought.Individuality is encouraged, but only in so far as it pertains to action in particular, and eschews all generalizations that stems of thinking. â€Å"Not philosophers but fret-sawyers and stamp collectors compose the backbone of society,† we are told by the narrator (Ibid). â€Å"Identity† here means that one is able to fulfill one’s own immediate inclination or instinct. Stability is the result of this non-thinking and instinct-driven existence. In short, the plan is for a bestial existence, and one acquires stability just as a species of animal is stable in its jungle abode.Yet the highest philosophy must coexist with this manufactured ignorance, because the ignorance must be manufactured by someone. The Director of the Hatcheries is among the tiny group of citizens that must know exactly what is going on, for they must process and maintain it. He is part of the highest caste, the Alphas, those who are privy to all knowledge. But the second highest caste, the Betas, must also have a working knowledge, because they take on the high supervisory roles of the running of this society. â€Å"Just to give you a general idea† (Ibid 16).the Director is wont to say as he provides instruction to the Beta students. They are not supposed to know, yet they must be able to do their work properly, and with a modicum of intelligence. The knowledge that they are provided is just enough to keep them happy. They apply the knowledge towards the particular work that they have to do. If they do their work prof iciently they have job satisfaction and financial reward, and ask for nothing beyond these. But the danger is that the knowledge is applied generally, and beyond the confines of the particular situation.Such application of knowledge disrupts the whole pattern, and defeats the object of society. â€Å"For particulars, as every one knows,† the narrator tells us, describing the logic of the Director, â€Å"make for virtue and happiness; generalities are intellectually necessary evils† (Ibid). The last observation is told from the point of view of the Director, and it is significant that he describes generalities as â€Å"intellectually necessary evils†. This is admitting that evil has not been eradicated from this society. It is present in the process, especially in the thought process that engenders the entire system.But the intellection that takes place is necessary, so it is not the philosophers at the helm who are evil. There is no indication in the novel that the World Controllers abuse the power that they have appropriated. They are portrayed as selfless, and as having no concern but the greatest good of society. They hold the secret knowledge that thought is evil, but the evil does not touch their own person, while they proceed with their intellectual designs on society. The evil is instead diffused throughout the system. The evil aspect of this society is the aggregate loss of humanity.Happiness has been bought, but the price paid for it has been essential humanity. The gift of humanity is the greatest gift, and thus the price paid is the ultimate one. For all its apparent contentedness, this society is intrinsically inhuman, and the descriptions of the process taking place in the Hatcheries Central point towards an inhuman existence. â€Å"I shall begin at the beginning† (Ibid). This is how the Director begins his instruction, trying to manufacture a solemnity in keeping with the enormity of what is taking place, which is huma n genesis on a massive scale.But his effort falls flat, and it seems nothing more than a facetious pun. We notice the same effort towards solemnity in all his words and gestures. But solemnity is not possible in the presence of such mundane processes, no matter that the object is human genesis. He tells them about the operation that removes the female ovaries, which are then kept functioning artificially in order to provides the human eggs. We are told that the donors act voluntarily, but we know that it is actually a hefty bait of â€Å"a bonus amounting to six months’ salary† that induces them (Ibid, p. 17).Both sperm and egg cells are maintained at the right temperatures, before arriving at the fertilizing room, where cylinders containing the eggs are manually dipped into the sperm to effect fertilization. We are shocked to witness human conception under such a shabby process as dipping cylinders is seminal fluid. The calculation is relentless. Not all the fertilize d eggs are not all treated the same. Those embryos that are destined to become Alpha citizens are accorded the best treatment. All other embryos are deliberately maltreated, to various degrees, so that they form the lower hierarchies, from beta to epsilon.The â€Å"Bokanovsky’s Process† is the euphemistic term to describe this crime. The deliberate damaging of embryos in indicative of the inherent inhumanity of this society. It is one human being maiming another who is at the most defenseless state of existence. The evil is thus inherent in the process itself. Not just on the philosopher at the top, the indictment somehow falls on society at a whole. References Huxley, Aldous. Brave New World and Brave New World Revisited. London: HarperCollins, 2004.